“It's not the sort of thing you bring up over dinner with your grandma”: Recipient narratives of online sperm donation

In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in people using online, unregulated websites and social networking groups to look for potential sperm donors and recipients (Freeman et al., 2016). Online sperm donation has received negative media attention, and it is framed as inherently ‘risky’ in the official documentation provided by medical and regulatory bodies (Gilman & Nordqvist, 2023). Despite this, only a small number of studies have been conducted on the practice to date, and these have mostly focused on the motivations of donors. Thus far, no reviews have been undertaken to identify what is currently known about online sperm donation, and where the gaps are in the evidence base. Additionally, no studies have been able to ascertain the extent of online sperm donation and to explore the scope and nature of the online platforms which facilitate the practice. Finally, qualitative experiences of recipients who have, or are planning to conceive, via this route are largely absent. Therefore, this thesis comprises three studies which sought to respond to these gaps in the evidence base through a contextualist, feminist epistemological lens. The first study is a systematic review of academic and grey literature on the characteristics, motivations, and experiences of donors and recipients who have used online sperm donation. A total of 23 papers/ reports/ book chapters were included in the review, and the findings were synthesised thematically, going beyond the original descriptive findings to generate new analytical themes. The second study was an environmental scan, which identified and mapped the scope, nature and characteristics of 61 online platforms, comprising over 350,000 members, which facilitate contact between sperm donors and recipients. The third study prospectively explored the experiences of 11 recipients of online sperm donation through a qualitative, longitudinal methodology. Creative, digital, and narrative methods were brought together to form an in-depth, chronological picture of the participants’ narratives over the course of one year: from the beginning of their search for a donor through to pregnancy and (in one case) postpartum. Together, the findings from the three studies make a unique contribution to the scholarly understanding of online sperm donation. The findings support suggestions that online sperm donation is a rapidly growing practice that is changing the landscape of donor conception (Harper et al., 2017). In line with previous research, the findings highlight the stigma associated with donor conception, and suggest that shame and secrecy are even more pronounced in the context of online sperm donation. The thesis provides evidence to suggest that online sperm donation is intrinsically different from clinic-based donation, and the necessity to communicate and meet up with the donor raises issues of trust and power for those engaging in the practice. The most positive finding to come from this research, however, was that online sperm donation provides recipients with an opportunity to form new kinship connections and to achieve their family-building goals in what is currently a restrictive medico-legal context (Taylor et al., 2022). Theoretically, this thesis demonstrates the usefulness of a contextualist, feminist epistemological framework for exploring online sperm donation. Practically, the findings point to the need to make online spaces safer, to provide reliable information, to change and challenge the policy context, and to increase institutional inclusivity for those considering, and undertaking, this route to parenthood.